Women in Medicine Essay Example for Free

Women in Medicine Essay One of the reasons why there was so much opposition to women becoming doctors was because society expected women to marry young and produce children. The thought of women working shocked many as people did not expect their daughters or wives to work for a living. The men believed that it was them who were superior, both physically and mentally. They did not see sense in educating women as they believed that women were too stupid to understand medicine anyway. They assumed that they could not trust these women with patients’ lives and accept that they would not make silly mistakes which could lead to the death of the patient. Any woman that succeeded in becoming a doctor was still thought of as inferior to the men because they believed she would not be able to understand their complex minds. This opposition also could have been due to the reputation of nurses in the first half of the nineteenth century. With no sense of professionalism, the nurses were nearly always drunk and dirty which encouraged the men to believe that all women would be the same if they were to enter the world of medicine. Nurses often took up prostitution to earn extra money therefore further disgusting men and making them believe that it was not a sensible idea for a respectable woman to enter the occupation. So even the women who were genuinely interested in becoming professional doctors would have been excluded and labelled under the same category as these nurses. Another reason may have been that men simply did not like being told what to do by women. If intelligent women were to enter the profession, they may make important discoveries before the men therefore hurting a man’s pride and ego. Men may have felt threatened by women that they thought were trying to usurp the profession, and therefore dismissed them as stupid and unprofessional so that they could ensure that it was only them who made great discoveries. Finally, religion was an important reason as to why there was opposition from men. The church prohibited women from achieving education and therefore many religious men may have excluded women because they were following the church’s rules and their religion. If they allowed women to receive medical training, they would have been going against the Church which was very powerful in the Middle Ages.

Liam O’Flaherty and The Anglo-Irish War Essay Example for Free

Liam O’Flaherty and The Anglo-Irish War Essay Liam O’Flaherty (1896-1984) †¢ Served in the Irish Guards of the British Army from 19151917 †¢ Suffered serious injury from a bomb blast in Belgium; was discharged due to depression. †¢ Following WWI, traveled widely and developed a world view based on atheism, communism, and the notion that Ireland should be an independent nation Liam O’Flaherty (1896-1984) †¢ Joined the Irish Republican Army to push for Irish independence. †¢ Opposed the 1921 treaty that made Ireland a part of the British Commonwealth. †¢ Wrote 13 novels between 1923 and 1976, many of which focused on the effects of war, revolution, and social upheaval in Ireland. Anglo-Irish War Origins The Easter Rising took place on 24 April, 1916 in Dublin, Ireland. The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) successfully incited a rising of about 1,600 rebels, which was quickly crushed by Crown (British) forces. The handling of the rebels, however, created mass sympathy and the consequences of this rebellion are still felt in Irish and international politics. The Anglo-Irish War †¢ 1919: The Irish Parliament, lead by Eamon de Valera and Michael Collins, declared Ireland a free state. †¢ The Irish Republic army launched guerilla warfare during the Irish War of Independence Anglo-Irish War 1920 March — Thomas McCurtain, Lord Mayor of Cork was shot in front of his family by British forces. October — His successor, Terence McSwiney, dies after a 74-day hunger strike. 1 November — Kevin Barry, an 18-year-old medical student, was hanged for his part in an ambush he took part in when he was 16. 21 November — Collinss Squad killed fourteen members of an elite British spy group known as the Cairo Gang. Revenge was taken by Crown forces, who fired on the crowd in Croke Park. 12 people were killed and 60 wounded. Later that evening, two IRA men and one innocent man were shot while escaping — in fact, they were marched into the prison courtyard and told to run, and when they refused they were shot in the back. Afterwards, 21 November became known as Bloody Sunday5. Bloody Sunday The Anglo-Irish War 1920 (cont.) 28 November — a flying column led by Tom Barry killed 18 auxilaries in an ambush at Kilmichael in west Cork. Shortly after, revenge was taken by the burning of the centre of the city of Cork. December — the Government of Ireland Act set up Home Rule parliaments in Dublin and Belfast. Each parliament was given control over domestic affairs. Sinn Fà ©in rejected it. This Act implemented the Partition of Ireland. The Anglo-Irish War 1921 25 May — the IRA burned Dublins custom house, where seven government departments were located. The attack led to the capture or death of more than 80 IRA men. 22 June, at the opening of the northern parliament at Stormount, King George V appealed for a truce: Pause, to stretch out the hand of forbearance and conciliation, to forgive and forget. King George V, 22 June, 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty An Irish Free State (Saorstà ¡t Éireann) of 26 counties was established The Irish state was a Dominion and was still part of the Commonwealth The British Monarch would remain as head of state and would be represented by the Governor-General The Royal Navy retained control of the ports of Cobh, Berehaven and Lough Swilly The border between the Free State and Northern Ireland would be drawn up by a Boundary Commission Aftermath of the Anglo-Irish Treaty 1922: The Irish civil war breaks out between pro- and anti-treaty parties. Armed groups crossed into Northern Ireland and attacked British installations. They hoped to force the British to give up control of Northern Ireland. Todays IRA stems from anti-treaty forces. May 1923: The civil war ends and Northern Ireland was still part of the United Kingdom. 1937: A new constitution ratified by the Irish government changes the name of the Irish Free State to Ireland. 1949: Ireland formally declares its independence from Britain. Ireland had cut all ties with the United Kingdom and became an independent republic.

Injury Underlying Obstetrical Brachial Plexus Palsy (OBPP)

Injury Underlying Obstetrical Brachial Plexus Palsy (OBPP) Mechanism of Injury Underlying Obstetrical Brachial Plexus Palsy Introduction Obstetrical Brachial Plexus Palsy (OBPP) is defined as a flaccid paresis of an upper extremity due to traumatic stretching of the brachial plexus occurring at birth, where the passive range of motion is greater than the active (Evans-Jones et al. 2003: F185–F189). Obstetrical brachial plexus palsy results from injury to the cervical roots C5-C8 and thoracic root T1 (Pollack et al. 2000: 236–246). The occurrence of Obstetrical brachial plexus injuries are reported in the medical literature at a rate of 0.38 to 2.6 per thousand live births (S. M. Shenaq et al. 2005). To understand the mechanism of injury causing OBPP it is necessary to have a fundamental anatomical knowledge about brachial plexus. Five spinal nerve roots C5, C6, C7, C8 and T1 combine to form brachial plexus. These five nerve roots combine into 3 trunks above the clavicle, the upper trunk at the C5-C6 level, the middle at C7 and the lower trunk at C8-T1. The cords end in 5 main peripheral nerves: the musculocutaneous, radial, axillary, median and ulnar nerves. The entire shoulder and the arm is supplied by the brachial plexus that helps in upper extremity function (Laurent et al. 1993: 197–203). There is a lot of controvery regarding the underlying mechanism of obstetrics brachial plexus injury that is a cause of recent litigious debate (Andersen et al. 2006: 93). OBPP is caused by excessive traction to the brachial plexus during delivery, as in majority of the cases upper shoulder gets blocked by the mother’s pubic symphysis (shoulder dystocia). With the traction to the child’s head, the angle between the neck and the shoulder is forcefully widened, overstretching the ipsilateral brachial plexus. The extent of injury can vary from neurapraxia or axonotmesis to neurotmesis and avulsion of rootlets from the spinal cord (Pondaag et al. 2004: 138–144). Some studies determine that in certain cases, brachial plexus injuries occur secondary to shoulder dystocia that is associated with high intrauterine forces, not traction injuries (S. M. Shenaq et al. 2005). Though the main theories have been that of compression (either direct or indirect caused by instrument s, fingers or between the bony structures) or traction (Sever 1916: 541) some authors proposed that infection or ischaemia is the cause, whilst others proposed postural in vitro causes, this view was strengthened by the apparent coincidence of other congenital malformations (S. P. Kay 1998: 43–50). The biomechanics of the size of the maternal pelvic and the foetal shoulder size and their position during the delivery determine the extent of injury to the brachial plexus (Zafeiriou Psychogiou 2008: 235–242). Also intrauterine factors, such as abnormal intrauterine pressures arising from uterine anomalies causes obstetrical brachial plexus palsy at the time of pregnancy (Gherman et al. 1999: 1303–1307). Some authors have (ACKER et al. 1988: 389–392) also discussed the possible reasons as to why relatively few OBPP happens during vaginal deliveries without shoulder dystocia; their analysis shifted the focus of OBPP’s cause, away from those forces appl ied by the clinicians towards the endogenous maternal propulsive forces. Both maternal expulsive forces and uterine contractions together form the natural forces. obstetrical brachial plexus palsy may happen in case of caesarean section (Jennett et al. 1992: 1673–1677) or operative vaginal delivery (Alexander et al. 2006: 885–890) also due to forceful traction and manipulation by the obstetrician. The risk factors for brachial plexus palsies may be divided into four categories: neonatal (: Birth weight > 4000 gm,Macrosomia, Breech foetal position, Apgar score: (a) 1 min, (b) 5 min), maternal (Age, Body mass index, Gestational diabetes, Multiparity, Maternal pelvic anatomy), labor-related factors (Duration of second stage of labor, Labor management: (a) induction of labor; (b) oxytocin augment; (c) epidural analgesia, Shoulder dystocia , Mode of delivery: (a) vaginal; (b) vacuum or forceps) and Associated Injuries (Clavicular fracture) (Zafeiriou Psychogiou 2008: 235–242). Brachial plexus injury can be classified according to severity : avulsion, rupture, neuroma, and neurapraxia (S. M. Shenaq et al. 1998: 527–536). anatomical location: upper, intermediate, lower, and total plexus palsy (Sandmire DeMott 2000: 941–942). Upper plexus palsy involves C5, C6, and sometimes C7. Also called Erb’s palsy, it is the most common type of brachial plexus injury (Gilbert Abbott 1995). It presents with an adducted arm, which is internally rotated at the shoulder. The wrist is flexed, and the fingers are extended, resulting in the characteristic ‘waiter’s tip’ posture. Intermediate plexus palsy, involving C7 and sometimes C8 and T1, has been proposed by a few researchers (Zafeiriou Psychogiou 2008: 235–242). Lower plexus palsy involves C8 and T1. Also called Klumpke paralysis, it is very rare and accounts for Total plexus palsy involves C5-C8 and sometimes T1 (J. K. Terzis et al. 1986: 773) and is the second most common type of injury (Laurent et al. 1993: 197–203). It is the most devastating plexus injury: the infant is left with a clawed hand and a flaccid and insensate arm. There is a strong positive correlation between assisted deliveries and total brachial plexus palsy, which indicates that a more severe injury has occurred to the plexus (Michelow et al. 1994: 675–680). Narakas classified obstetrical brachial plexus lesions into four, based on the examination 2- 3 weeks after birth: Group I: C5-6; paralysis of shoulder and biceps. Group II: C5-7; paralysis of shoulder, biceps and forearm extensors. Group Ill: C5-T1, complete paralysis of limb. Group IV: C5-T1; as above with Homers syndrome (S. P. Kay 1998: 43–50). The majority of the patient (70%-95%) recovered completely within 3 to 4 months. Rest 5% patients were requiring conservative or surgical treatment according to extent and severity of injury. Physiotherapy and splinting are conservative treatment and nerve reconstruction, grafting, neurolysis, tendon transplantation procedures are in the surgical treatment. Many classifications and scoring systems for assessing function and predicting outcomes for children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy have been proposed. The most common and clinically useful measures used are mention below. British Medical Research Council Scale A number of methods have been used to describe or quantify motor function in children with OBPP.The British Medical Research Council (M R C ) system of manual muscle testing is the most recognized scale for the evaluation of strength for patients with peripheral nerve injuries. This test employs the use of limb segment positioning without and against gravity and the use of manual resistance to grade muscle strength on a 6-point scale (O = no contraction, 5 = normal power). The MRC scale as a measure of strength for infants with OBPP has been reported by a number of authors. This scale falls within the body functions and structures domain of ICF (Ho et al. 2012). Gilbert and Tassin Scale Gilbert and Tassin have suggested a modified MRC scale for the evaluation of children with OBPP to account for the difficulties encountered in examining infants with manual resistance. The MO-M3 scale has been used as an outcome measure in some studies. This scale is limited in the ability to distinguish improvements in motor recovery however, as it has only one grade to classify partial movement. This scale falls within the body functions and structures domain of ICF (Ho et al. 2012). Mallet Scale Mallet has described a method of evaluating children with OBPP based on the ability to perform functional positioning of the affected limb. With this classification, patients are asked to actively perform five different shoulder movements: abduction, external rotation, placing the hand behind the neck, placing the hand as high as possible on the spine, and placing the hand to the mouth. Each shoulder movement is subsequently graded on a scale of I (no movement) to V (normal motion that is symmetric with that on the contralateral, unaffected side). Although utilized as an outcome measure by a number of authors. This system can only be used with a cooperative, older child. This scale is not suitable for use with infants. It has an excellent intra-observer reliability of kappa= 0.76 and an inter-observer reliability of kappa = 0.78 in this patients. This scale falls within the body functions and structures domain of ICF (Ho et al. 2012). The Active Movement Scale The Active Movement Scale is an eight-grade ordinal scale that was co-developed by the candidate and the head of the Brachial Plexus Clinic at The Hospital for Sick Children (HSC) for the specific purpose of evaluating infants (newborn to one year of age) with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. This tool is used to quantify upper extremity strength by observing spontaneous, active movement both without and against gravity. Each movement is scored on a scale of 0 to 7. The fifteen movements include shoulder flexion, shoulder abduction, shoulder adduction, shoulder internal rotation, shoulder external rotation, elbow flexion, elbow extension, forearm pronation, forearm supination, wrist flexion, wrist extension, digital flexion, digital extension, thumb flexion, and thumb extension. The use of this scale for clinical and scientific evaluation has been reported in a number of publications. It has an excellent intra-observer reliability of kappa= 0.85 and an inter-observer reliability of kappa = 0.66 in this patients. It has established good psychometric properties in this population. This scale falls within the body functions and structures domain of ICF (Ho et al. 2012). Gilbert and Raimondi scale Elbow flexion was graded by the system of Gilbert and Raimondi which ranges from 0 (paralysis) to 5 (complete active flexion and extension). Function of the hand was graded from 0 (paralysis) to 5 in which there is complete active flexion and extension of the wrist and fingers, strong intrinsic muscle function and active pronation and supination in excess of 90Â °, as described by Raimondi (Birch et al. 2005: 1089–1095). This scale falls within the body functions and structures domain of ICF (Ho et al. 2012). Toronto Test Score: Michelow et al. proposed the Toronto Test Score to quantify upper-extremity function and to predict recovery in infants with brachial plexus birth palsy9. With this scoring system, patients are prompted to actively flex the elbow and extend the elbow, wrist, fingers, and thumb. Each of these five movements is then graded on a scale of 0 (no motion) to 2 (normal full motion), and the sum of the values determines the aggregate, or total, Toronto Test Score (maximum, 10 points). The Toronto Test Score was designed to predict outcome in patients with brachial plexus birth palsy. It has an excellent intra-observer reliability of kappa= 0.73 and an inter-observer reliability of kappa = 0.51 in this patients. This scale falls within the body functions and structures domain of ICF (Ho et al. 2012). Literature Review: Julia K. Terzis and Kokkalis (2008) conducted a retrospective study to see the effect of primary and secondary shoulder reconstruction in obstetric brachial plexus palsy. 96children with OBPP were recruited in the study. 30 cases underwent primary reconstruction alone, 37 underwent both primary and secondary procedures, and 31 late cases underwent only palliative surgery. From this population, 23 cases were diagnosed with classic Erb’s palsy, 22 cases with Erb’s palsy and C7 involvement and 53 cases with global palsy (C5-T1). British Medical Research Council grading system and modified Mallet scale were used as outcome measures. The mean follow-up period was 6.7 years. Significant improvement was seen in the entire population according to modified Mallet scale and mean score improved from 8.8 points (range, 6-19 points) preoperatively to 20.9 points (range, 13-24 points) postoperatively (p They used large population. The inclusion criteria was not proper. They used long follow up period. There can be selection bias present. Nehme et al. (2002) conducted a retrospective study to see the prediction of outcome in upper root injuries in OBPP. 30 children with unilateral upper obstetrical brachial plexus injuries were recruited in this study. The age of this group was between 1 week and 2 months. The mean follow-up was 14 years. Each child was examined every month in the first year and every 3 months in the second year. Mallet scale was used to assess the functional recovery and classification of Tassin was used to assess the muscle power. Result showed that three patients had achieved a ‘‘good recovery’’, at 3 months and 12 patients had made a ‘‘good recovery’’ at 9 months with conventional physical therapy. The best predictor of outcome was elbow flexion at 9 months with 13% error, and not 3 months with 36% error rate for brachial plexus reconstruction. A ‘‘good result’’ at final assessment was predicted by the recovery of M2 elb ow flexion at 3 months (Student t-test: P Bisinella and Birch (2003) conducted a prospective study with 74 children with OBPP to see the incident of recovery. The mean age of children was 3.2 months and follow up period was two years. Mallet scale and Gilbert scale used for shoulder function, Gilbert and Raimondi scale used for elbow function and Raimondi’s system used for measuring hand function. Patients underwent to conventional or surgical intervention according to severity. Result showed that very good recovery in 39 cases, useful arm with residual deficit in 29 cases, some function in 4 cases and very poor result in 2 cases. Mallet scale is not appropriate for this age of children. They used large population. Methodology was not good. Grossman et al. (2004) conducted a prospective study to assess the shoulder function following late neurolysis and bypass grafting for upper brachial plexus birth injury. 11 children in age from 9 to21 months were recruited in the study. Modified Gilbert system used for measuring shoulder function. All patients were followed for 2 or more years. In spite of some limitation, modified Gilbert system is accepted as a reliable outcome measure following surgery. Significant improvement was seen in all patients. Sample size was too small. Methodology was not explained properly. Inclusion criteria was not mention properly. Birch et al. (2005) conducted a prospective study to see the improvement after repair of obstetric brachial plexus palsy. 100 children were recruited in the study. Operation was advised when poor clinical recovery was matched by unfavourable neurophysiological predictions. The mean duration of follow-up was 85 months. Gilbert’s system and mallet system was used to assess shoulder and Gilbert and Raimondi system used to assess elbow. Result showed that good improvement was obtained in 33% of repairs of C5, in 55% of C6, in 24% of C7 and in 57% of operations on C8 and T1. Discussion: The debate whether and when to operate on OBPP is still active because it is difficult to predict the natural history for recovery of nerve lesions, because this depends on the severity of the injury (stretch, rupture, avulsion) and on the levels of injury (partial or total plexus lesion). The challenge now lay in deciding which children would recover spontaneously, and which would need direct nerve surgery to aid their progress. Some author proposed three indications for surgery; complete palsy with flail arm and Horners syndrome; complete C5 C6 palsy without muscle contraction by 3 months and with a negative EMG (often, they say, corresponding to a complete root avulsion); and C5 C6 palsy with no recovery in biceps at 3 months (biceps alone is chosen because examination of deltoid to the exclusion of pectoralis major is difficult at this age). Zancolli and Zancollf suggested that for each level of involvement of the plexus there was a different key muscle to consider as an indicato r for direct nerve surgery. For the upper plexus the key muscle was biceps and deltoid, whilst for the middle plexus it was triceps and for the lower plexus, the finger flexors and thumb extensors. In general the decision about surgery in their recommendations is delayed until between 6 or 8 months when absence of clinical or electrophysiological signs of recovery in key muscles, or the cessation of recovery at a value of M2 or less on the British Muscle Movement Scale indicated the likelihood of poor spontaneous recovery and an indication for direct nerve surgery. According to literature review, Julia K. Terzis and Kokkalis (2008) proposed that early plexus reconstruction (

Wal-Marts Planning Levels Essay -- essays research papers

Wal-Mart as a company employs several different levels of planning to ensure the completion of the many goals is put into motion each year. After the upper management members have attended the massive planning meetings that Wal-Mart holds in order to put projects in motion, they will relay the messages to the next layer of management. It is this level of management, better known as middle management, which we will concentrate on for this paper as they are the ones who will implement the tactical phase of any plan. An example of this would be the method that Wal-Mart devised to guarantee diversity in the management ranks. After â€Å"being sued for allegedly not paying employees for overtime, for alleged gender bias† Wal-Mart decided to start a plan of action to ensure diversity (usatoday.com, 2004). In this plan managers were required to hire the same percentage of minority managers as the percentage that applied for the job (usatoday.com, 2004). If these numbers were not met , the bonuses of all managers involved were to be cut significantly. After receiving this message from upper management, it was up to the middle management team to pass it on to the operational managers and check on them to guarantee that changes were being made that would allow the company to reach the goal. By using this tactical level of management, the mid-tier managers were able to direct the lower managers and make a positive step towards accomplishing the objective that was put in front of them.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   SWOTT Analysis (Strengths)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Low prices, management strategies, and diversity are just some of Wal-Mart’s strengths. Wal-Mart is known for being one of the largest retailers that’s able to provide a wide range of quality products at a low price. Competitors such as K-Mart are unable to compete with Wal-Mart due to the lack of name brand products. K-Mart is able to provide non-name brand products at a reduced price, but cannot maintain the low prices of the name brand products Wal-Mart provides (Hayden, P., Lee, S., McMahon, K., & Pereria, M., 2002). SWOTT Analysis (Weaknesses) As a huge organization, Wal-Mart has a weakness in opening an expansion in Germany. The weaknesses in an organization need more development in order to become successful. As Wal-Mart continues to grow and expand into different countries, the diverse managemen... ...llowing all their shopping to be done at one time in one place. References: Albright, M. (2004, October 6). St. Petersburg Times: Wal-Mart strategy: Squeeze in more stores. Retrieved Friday, June 24, 2005, from: www.sptimes.com/2004/10/06/Business/Wal_Mart_strategy__Sq.shtml. Armour, Stephanie (2003). Wal-Mart takes hits on worker treatment: USA TODAY. Retrieved on June 15th, 2005 from: http://www.usatoday.com/money/workplace/2003-02-09-wal-mart-cov2_x.htm Fernie, J. & Arnold, S. Wal-Mart in Europe: Prospects for Germany, the UK, and France. International Journal of Retail & Distribution. Bradford: 2002, Vol 30, Issue 2/3, P92-103. Retrieved on June 15, 2005 for ProQuest. G.M.A. (2003, October). Wal-Mart Update: Supersizing the Supermarket. Times & Trends. Retrieved on June 15th, 2005 from: http://www.gmabrands.com/publications/gmairi/2003/October.htm Hayden, P., Lee, S., McMahon, K., & Pereira, M. (2002). Wal-Mart: Staying on Top of the Fortune 500. Retrieved June 16, 2005, from: http://mike-pereira.com/subpage/docs/walmartcs.htm Usatoday.com. (2004). The Associated Press. Retrieved Wednesday 15, 2005, from: http://www.walmartfacts.com/associates/diversity.aspx

How Osmosis Affects A Potato Chip Essay -- GCSE Biology Osmosis Course

How Osmosis Affects A Potato Aim: - To See How Osmosis Affects A Potato Preliminary work Prediction: -I predict that the weight of the potato in the sugar solution will decrease and the weight of water will increase. I predict that the weight of the potato in the sugar solution will decrease when it reaches 3:1 (salt: water). In put Variables: -Molarity -Size of potato -Mass of Water -Molarity of Sugar -Length of time in the solution -Temperature of water Out put variables: -Weight of potato Key variables: -Molarity of sugar. This is a key variable because it has the most effective outcome because osmosis only works when there are different molarities in and outside of the potato other wise the diffusion theory of osmosis wont work. We are going to keep a fair test by: - Keeping all the volume of water the same in each test tube - Keeping the starting weight of the potato the same to begin with - When removing the excess water of the potato make sure all excess water is removed but without squeezing any water out of the potato - Keeping the temperature of the water the same - Use the same type of potato (grown from the same potato) We will keep the experiment safe by making sure that all the test tube racks are in a suitable position so they wont easterly be knocked over. Preliminary results --------------------------------------------- Sugar Water Time left in 0.44g 0.44 Start 0.43g 0.44 5mins 0.42g 0.45 10mins 0.49g 0.46 15mins 0.38g 0.46 20mins --------------------------------------------- The table above shows the weight of the potato. Prediction I predict that the weight of the potato in the sugar solution will go down and the weight of the water will decrease because the water molecules in the sugar solution are small enough to diffuse through a semi-permeable membrane in the potato is the high concentration of water and water will only go through from a high concentration to a low concentration of water. Water goes into a potato sample because there is a higher concentration of water out side the potato than inside of the potato and water will go from a high concentration to a low concentration therefore the water will go into the potato and... ... to be sure to show a constant pattern. We didn't have any anomalous results maybe because we mad sure that we left each potato in the solution an equal amount of time. Also when we removed access water we were very careful not to squeeze any water out of the potato other wise it would of made it an unfair test. To improve reliability and accuracy next time in the prim nary plan I would make sure that my prediction was detailed so I would understand everything much clearer in order to get a better set of results. Also the preliminary experiment next time will be a lot more accurate in the way that we should take more care in time that the potato is left in the solution for how ever long of a time it should be left in. The main plan could be longer and in more detail so that it is more clear to read and understand. The amount of results that we got was just about enough to work out and see weather the prediction was correct. This means that next time we should do more sets of results to get a more accurate outcome. To help back up this experiment we could use more chats of graphs showing rate of osmosis in time and other ways of showing how osmosis affects a potato.

Bizet, Georges :: essays research papers

Georges Bizet   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Georges Bizet was born in Paris on October 25th, 1838. He was trained by his parents, who were musical, and admitted to the Paris Conservatoire just before his tenth birthday. There he studied counterpoint with Zimmerman and Gounod and composition with Halà ©vy, and under Marmontel's tuition he became a brilliant pianist. Bizet's exceptional powers as a composer are already apparent in the products of his Conservatoire years, notably the Symphony in C, a work of precocious genius dating from 1855 (but not performed until 1935). In 1857 Bizet shared with Lecocq a prize offered by Offenbach for a setting of the one-act operetta Le Docteur Miracle; later that year he set out for Italy as holder of the coveted Prix de Rome.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During his three years in Rome Bizet began or projected many compositions; only four survive, including the opera buffa, Don Procopio (not performed until 1906). Shortly after his return to Paris, in September 1861, his mother died; the composer consoled himself with his parents' maid, by whom he had a son in June 1862. He rejected teaching at the Conservatoire and the temptation to become a concert pianist, and completed his obligations under the terms of the Prix de Rome. The last of these, a one-act opà ©ra comique, La guzla de l'emir, was rehearsed at the Opà ©ra-Comique in 1863 but withdrawn when the Thà ©Ãƒ ¢tre-Lyrique director, who had been offered 100 000 francs to produce annually an opera by a Prix de Rome winner who had not had a work staged, invited Bizet to compose Les pà ªcheurs de perles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bizet completed it in four months. It was produced in September 1863, but met with a generally cool reception: an uneven work, with stiff characterization, it is notable for the skilful scoring of its exotic numbers. In the ensuing years Bizet earned a living arranging other composers' music and giving piano lessons. Not until December 1867 was another opera staged - La jolie fille de Perth, which shows a surer dramatic mastery than Les pà ªcheurs despite an inept libretto. It received a good press but had only 18 performances.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1868 was a year of crisis for Bizet, with more abortive works, attacks of quinsy and a reexamination of his religious stance; and his attitude to music grew deeper. In June 1869 he married Genevià ¨ve, daughter of his former teacher, Halà ©vy, and the next year they suffered the privations caused by the Franco-Prussian war (Bizet enlisted in the National Guard).

Police Strategies Essay

The topic I chose to research about is which police strategy/tactic is most effective in reducing crime and disorder. There are various forms of policing such as community-oriented policing, problem-oriented policing, hot spots policing, broken windows theory, and zero-tolerance policing. COP is a model of policing that stresses a two-way working relationship between the community and the police along with the police becoming more integrated into the local community, and citizens assuming an active role in crime control and prevention. POP is a concept created by Herman Goldstein in which he believes the police should take the categories of crime, order maintenance, and service and break them down into discrete problems and then develop specific responses to each one. Hot spots policing originated from research that revealed crime is extremely concentrated in small areas. The broken windows theory is about how crime problems develop at place, and how police should focus their role to stop crime problems from arising. According to Paul M.  Walters, there is a strategy for COP to prevent crime and disorder which is referred to as response to incidents (R2I). R2I requires law enforcement officers to react to crimes or emergency incidents. In order to promote citizen confidence in the police, officers should swiftly respond to any such incidents and establish and maintain control over the situation. R2I also requires officers to respond proactively to crime patterns. This is accomplished through such tactics as directed patrol, targeted identifications, etc. However, if police administrators do not carefully manage the R2I strategy, their departments can quickly be overwhelmed by community demands. In order to manage increased calls for police service, administrators need to monitor demand and then research as many creative ways as possible to respond to these calls. There are many ways to respond to calls for assistance that do not require the immediate dispatching of an officer in a patrol car. Other, less expensive responses may satisfy the request just as effectively. Another way to better serve jurisdictions using the R2I strategy is to invest in current technology in such areas as communications, information, case management and analysis, and transportation which may include automated mug systems, records management and retrieval systems, automated aging systems, and mobile data terminals. Department managers must then use all their resources, both technological and human, in a balanced way that produces not just activity but also results that they can measure against their mission statements. Managing the limited resources of departments to respond effectively to both incidents and calls for service, while producing the greatest advantage for their communities, requires managers to make informed, professional decisions. Foot patrol and Neighborhood Watch programs are two other popular strategies for the effectiveness of COP. A number of evaluations in the 1980s reported that while additional foot patrol did not reduce crime, it did increase feelings of safety. If people are less fearful they might not withdraw from the communities, and the process of neighborhood deterioration might not begin. Neighborhood Watch programs have repeatedly been found to have little impact on crime. Residents who live in areas with more crime, and who live in inner-city minority neighborhoods, have been less willing to participate in Neighborhood Watch programs or any other activities that involve partnership with the police. The effect of whether COP works is hard to say and evidence is very mixed. It’s hard to evaluate since it’s done differently from police department to police department. While a number of questions remain, the future of COP appears bright. According to Paul M.  Walters, the heart of the POP approach is the concept that police must be more responsive to the causes of crime, rather than merely dealing with the results of crime. Maintaining neighborhood safety can be more beneficial to the community than merely treating isolated neighborhood problems. This approach represents a significant shift in how both the public and the police view the role of law enforcement in the community. Problem-oriented policing is a proactive, decentralized approach to providing police services designed to reduce crime and disorder, and by extension, the fear of crime. Department heads achieve this by assigning officers to specific neighborhoods on a long-term basis. Long-term involvement between the officers and neighborhood residents fosters the development of credible relationships based on mutual trust and cooperation. It also allows a high-level exchange of information between citizens and police officers, as well as mutual input concerning policing priorities and tactics for specific areas of the community. Problem-oriented policing also istributes police services more effectively across the community and targets high-crime areas for problem-solving approaches that allow law enforcement to define and deal with the causes of crime. This helps to neutralize the undue influence of special interest groups that can be the recipients of preferred services when no system of community-based priorities exists. Systematic reviews and meta analysis are a method for determining whether POP reduces crime and disorder. A study was conducted by Weisburg, Telep, Hinkle, and Eck. Whether they used a more conservative mean effect size approach or examined the largest effects on crime and disorder reported, they found that POP approaches have a statistically significant effect on the outcomes examined. Importantly, the results are similar whether we look at experimental or nonexperimental studies. The small group of studies in the review allows us to come to a solid conclusion regarding the promise of POP, but it does not allow statistical conclusions regarding the types of approaches that work best for specific types of problems. They think it a major public policy failure that the government and the police have not invested greater effort and resources in identifying the POP approaches and tactics that work best to combat specific types of crime. Moreover, a much larger number of studies are needed to draw strong generalizations regarding the possible effectiveness of POP across different types of jurisdictions and different types of police agencies. The portfolio of available studies does not allow us to draw conclusions about such contextual factors and suggests that U.  S. policing has adopted POP widely without an evidence base for deciding where and when it should be used. The central conclusion of our review is that POP as an approach has significant promise to ameliorate crime and disorder problems broadly defined. Hot spots policing is easier to implement than COP and POP. Research early on showed it had promise in reducing crime. It’s easy to implement as officers are still doing patrol and making arrests. Computerized crime mapping is used in nearly every police department that does hot spots policing. Some programs can do statistical analyses to identify hot spots and find trends in crime across time and space. The programs also can have maps updated with the latest data each day. Studies have found that hot spots policing is at least moderately effective in reducing crime. It’s so hard to know what exactly works because many studies also involve elements of POP and other tactics. The broken windows theory is widely viewed as effective in policing circles after it was used in New York City in the 1990s and the city had a large crime drop. There are several suggestions for how police could best prevent crime with the broken windows theory. Police should return to the order maintenance role. Police should not ignore disorder. Police should negotiate consensus with residents and users of public spaces about what is or is not acceptable in that area. The key is to deal with disorder quickly and not let it untended, and clean it up in areas that have declined. This is hypothesized to prevent fear of crime and maintain social controls in areas such as residents aren’t afraid to intervene and/or move away from the area. Some studies have found increased complaints against the police with the broken windows theory. In conclusion, the research I obtained about the various police strategies and tactics leads to an important statement. Unfortunately, there is no clear answer. There is fairly mixed and weak research evidence about the impacts of these tactics on crime. COP seems effective in fighting fear of crime and improving police-community relations but not in fighting crime. A report by the National Academy reinforces that the most effective strategies and tactics are those that target small locations, take a focused approach, and are highly proactive.